Hepatitis B Prevalence and Risk Factors in Punjab, India: A Population-Based Serosurvey.

Background: The prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in Punjab, India, is unknown. Understanding the statewide prevalence and epidemiology can help guide public health campaigns to reduce the burden of disease and promote elimination efforts. Methods: A cross-sectional, population-based survey was conducted from October 2013 to April 2014 using a multistage stratified cluster sampling design. All members of selected households aged ≥5 years were eligible. Participants were surveyed for demographics and risk behaviors; serum samples were tested for total antibody to hepatitis B core (total anti-HBc), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody (anti-HCV), and HCV RNA. HBsAg-positive specimens were tested for HBV genotype. Results: A total of 5543 individuals participated in the survey and provided serum samples. The prevalence of total anti-HBc was 15.2% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 14.1-16.5) and HBsAg was 1.4% (95% CI: 1.0-1.9). Total anti-HBc positivity was associated with male sex (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.46; 95% CI: 1.21-1.75), older age (aOR 3.31; 95% CI: 2.28-4.79 for ≥60 vs. 19-29 years), and living in a rural area (aOR 2.02; 95% CI: 1.62-2.51). Receipt of therapeutic injections in the past 6 months also increased risk (4-8 injections vs. none; aOR 1.39; 95% CI: 1.05-1.84). Among those positive for total anti-HBc, 10.4% (95% CI: 8.1-13.2) were also anti-HCV positive. Conclusion: Punjab has a substantial burden of HBV infection. Hepatitis B vaccination programs and interventions to minimize the use of therapeutic injections, particularly in rural areas, should be considered.

Goal-Directed Achievement Through Geographic Location (GAGL) Reduces Patient Length of Stay and Adverse Events.

This prospective cohort study aimed to improve hospital outcomes through geographic location of hospitalist patients and conducting daily multidisciplinary team rounds-Goal-directed Achievements through Geographic Location (GAGL). Patients were admitted to a geographic (GAGL) study unit where daily multidisciplinary rounds took place among nursing, case management, a hospitalist, pharmacy, physical and occupational therapy, respiratory therapy, and nutrition services. A total of 985 (56.4%) patients were admitted to the GAGL study unit and 760 patients (43.6%) were admitted to non-GAGL units. Patients admitted to the GAGL study unit had a shorter average length of stay (3.64 days vs 4.35 days, P = .0001) and a lower number of risk events (91 [9.2%] vs 93 [12.2%], P = .038). There was no significant difference in 30-day readmissions, avoidable day events, or code blue team activations. GAGL provides a framework for hospital organizations to improve provider communication, hospital efficiency, and patient safety.

Underreporting of Hepatitis B and C virus infections - Pennsylvania, 2001-2015.

CONTEXT: In Pennsylvania, reporting of viral hepatitis B (HBV) and viral hepatitis C (HCV) infections to CDC has been mandated since 2002. Underreporting of HBV and HCV infections has long been identified as a problem. Few reports have described the accuracy of state surveillance case registries for recording clinically-confirmed cases of HBV and HCV infections, or the characteristics of populations associated with lower rates of reporting. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of the current study is to estimate the proportion of HBV and HCV infections that went unreported to the Pennsylvania Department of Health (PDoH), among patients in the Geisinger Health System of Pennsylvania. As a secondary objective, we study the association between underreporting of HBV and HCV infections to PDoH, and the select patient characteristics of interest: sex, age group, race/ethnicity, rural status, and year of initial diagnosis. DESIGN: Per medical record review, the study population was limited to Geisinger Health System patients, residing in Pennsylvania, who were diagnosed with a chronic HBV and/or HCV infection, between 2001 and 2015. Geisinger Health System patient medical records were matched to surveillance records of confirmed cases reported to the Pennsylvania Department of Health (PDoH). To quantify the extent that underreporting occurred among the Geisinger Health System study participants, we calculated the proportion of study participants that were not reported to PDoH as confirmed cases of HBV or HCV infections. An analysis of adjusted prevalence ratio estimates was conducted to study the association between underreporting of HBV and HCV infections to PDoH, and the select patient characteristics of interest. RESULTS: Geisinger Health System patients living with HBV were reported to PDoH 88.4% (152 of 172) of the time; patients living with HCV were reported to PDoH 94.6% (2,257 of 2,386) of the time; and patients who were co-infected with both viruses were reported to PDoH 72.0% (18 of 25) of the time. Patients living with HCV had an increased likelihood of being reported if they were: less than or equal to age 30 vs ages 65+ {PR = 1.2, [95%CI, (1.1, 1.3)]}, and if they received their initial diagnosis of HCV during the 2010-2015 time period vs the 1990-1999 time period {PR = 1.08, [95%CI, (1.05, 1.12)]}. CONCLUSION: The findings in this study are promising, and suggests that PDoH has largely been successful with tracking and monitoring viral hepatitis B and C infections, among persons that were tested for HBV and/or HCV. Additional efforts should be placed on decreasing underreporting rates of HCV infections among seniors (ages 65 and over), and persons who are co-infected with HBV and HCV.

A Large Outbreak of Hepatitis C Virus Infections in a Hemodialysis Clinic.

BACKGROUND In November and December 2012, 6 patients at a hemodialysis clinic were given a diagnosis of new hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. OBJECTIVE To investigate the outbreak to identify risk factors for transmission. METHODS A case patient was defined as a patient who was HCV-antibody negative on clinic admission but subsequently was found to be HCV-antibody positive from January 1, 2008, through April 30, 2013. Patient charts were reviewed to identify and describe case patients. The hypervariable region 1 of HCV from infected patients was tested to assess viral genetic relatedness. Infection control practices were evaluated via observations. A forensic chemiluminescent agent was used to identify blood contamination on environmental surfaces after cleaning. RESULTS Eighteen case patients were identified at the clinic from January 1, 2008, through April 30, 2013, resulting in an estimated 16.7% attack rate. Analysis of HCV quasispecies identified 4 separate clusters of transmission involving 11 case patients. The case patients and previously infected patients in each cluster were treated in neighboring dialysis stations during the same shift, or at the same dialysis station on 2 consecutive shifts. Lapses in infection control were identified. Visible and invisible blood was identified on multiple surfaces at the clinic. CONCLUSIONS Epidemiologic and laboratory data confirmed transmission of HCV among numerous patients at the dialysis clinic over 6 years. Infection control breaches were likely responsible. This outbreak highlights the importance of rigorous adherence to recommended infection control practices in dialysis settings.

Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged ≤30 years - Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, 2006-2012.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the most common blood-borne infection in the United States, with approximately three million persons living with current infection. Percutaneous exposure to contaminated blood is the most efficient mode of transmission, and in the United States, injection drug use (IDU) is the primary risk factor for infection. State surveillance reports from the period 2006-2012 reveal a nationwide increase in reported cases of acute HCV infection, with the largest increases occurring east of the Mississippi River, particularly among states in central Appalachia. Demographic and behavioral data accompanying these reports show young persons (aged ≤30 years) from nonurban areas contributed to the majority of cases, with about 73% citing IDU as a principal risk factor. To better understand the increase in acute cases of HCV infection and its correlation to IDU, CDC examined surveillance data for acute case reports in conjunction with analyzing drug treatment admissions data from the Treatment Episode Data Set-Admissions (TEDS-A) among persons aged ≤30 years in four states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia) for the period 2006-2012. During this period, significant increases in cases of acute HCV infection were found among persons in both urban and nonurban areas, with a substantially higher incidence observed each year among persons residing in nonurban areas. During the same period, the proportion of treatment admissions for opioid dependency increased 21.1% in the four states, with a significant increase in the proportion of persons admitted who identified injecting as their main route of drug administration (an increase of 12.6%). Taken together, these increases indicate a geographic intersection among opioid abuse, drug injecting, and HCV infection in central Appalachia and underscore the need for integrated health services in substance abuse treatment settings to prevent HCV infection and ensure that those who are infected receive medical care.

Outbreak of hepatitis A in the USA associated with frozen pomegranate arils imported from Turkey: an epidemiological case study.

BACKGROUND: In May, 2013, an outbreak of symptomatic hepatitis A virus infections occurred in the USA. Federal, state, and local public health officials investigated the cause of the outbreak and instituted actions to control its spread. We investigated the source of the outbreak and assessed the public health measures used. METHODS: We interviewed patients, obtained their shopping information, and did genetic analysis of hepatitis A virus recovered from patients' serum and stool samples. We tested products for the virus and traced supply chains. FINDINGS: Of 165 patients identified from ten states, 69 (42%) were admitted to hospital, two developed fulminant hepatitis, and one needed a liver transplant; none died. Illness onset occurred from March 31 to Aug 12, 2013. The median age of patients was 47 years (IQR 35-58) and 91 (55%) were women. 153 patients (93%) reported consuming product B from retailer A. 40 patients (24%) had product B in their freezers, and 113 (68%) bought it according to data from retailer A. Hepatitis A virus genotype IB, uncommon in the Americas, was recovered from specimens from 117 people with hepatitis A virus illness. Pomegranate arils that were imported from Turkey--where genotype IB is common--were identified in product B. No hepatitis A virus was detected in product B. INTERPRETATION: Imported frozen pomegranate arils were identified as the vehicle early in the investigation by combining epidemiology--with data from several sources--genetic analysis of patient samples, and product tracing. Product B was removed from store shelves, the public were warned not to eat product B, product recalls took place, and postexposure prophylaxis with both hepatitis A virus vaccine and immunoglobulin was provided. Our findings show that modern public health actions can help rapidly detect and control hepatitis A virus illness caused by imported food. Our findings show that postexposure prophylaxis can successfully prevent hepatitis A illness when a specific product is identified. Imported food products combined with waning immunity in some adult populations might make this type of intervention necessary in the future. FUNDING: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Food and Drug Administration, and US state and local public health departments.

Emerging epidemic of hepatitis C virus infections among young nonurban persons who inject drugs in the United States, 2006-2012.

BACKGROUND: Reports of acute hepatitis C in young persons in the United States have increased. We examined data from national surveillance and supplemental case follow-up at selected jurisdictions to describe the US epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among young persons (aged ≤30 years). METHODS: We examined trends in incidence of acute hepatitis C among young persons reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) during 2006-2012 by state, county, and urbanicity. Sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics of HCV-infected young persons newly reported from 2011 to 2012 were analyzed from case interviews and provider follow-up at 6 jurisdictions. RESULTS: From 2006 to 2012, reported incidence of acute hepatitis C increased significantly in young persons-13% annually in nonurban counties (P = .003) vs 5% annually in urban counties (P = .028). Thirty (88%) of 34 reporting states observed higher incidence in 2012 than 2006, most noticeably in nonurban counties east of the Mississippi River. Of 1202 newly reported HCV-infected young persons, 52% were female and 85% were white. In 635 interviews, 75% of respondents reported injection drug use. Of respondents reporting drug use, 75% had abused prescription opioids, with first use on average 2.0 years before heroin. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate an emerging US epidemic of HCV infection among young nonurban persons of predominantly white race. Reported incidence was higher in 2012 than 2006 in at least 30 states, with largest increases in nonurban counties east of the Mississippi River. Prescription opioid abuse at an early age was commonly reported and should be a focus for medical and public health intervention.

Effect of rapid influenza diagnostic testing on antiviral treatment decisions for patients with influenza-like illness: southwestern U.S., May-December 2009.

Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) had low test sensitivity for detecting 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1pdm09) infection, causing public health authorities to recommend that treatment decisions be based primarily upon risk for influenza complications. We used multivariate Poisson regression analysis to estimate the contribution of RIDT results and risk for H1N1pdm09 complications to receipt of early antiviral (AV) treatment among 290 people with influenza-like illness (ILI) who received an RIDT ≤48 hours after symptom onset from May to December 2009 at four southwestern U.S. facilities. RIDT results had a stronger association with receipt of early AVs (rate ratio [RR] = 3.3, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.4, 4.6) than did the presence of risk factors for H1N1pdm09 complications (age <5 years or high-risk medical conditions) (RR=1.9, 95% CI 1.3, 2.7). Few at-risk people (28/126, 22%) who had a negative RIDT received early AVs, suggesting the need for sustained efforts by public health to influence clinician practices.

Mortality caused by chronic liver disease among American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States, 1999-2009.

OBJECTIVES: We compared chronic liver disease (CLD) mortality from 1999 to 2009 between American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) and Whites in the United States after improving CLD case ascertainment and AI/AN race classification. METHODS: We defined CLD deaths and causes by comprehensive death certificate-based diagnostic codes. To improve race classification, we linked US mortality data to Indian Health Service enrollment records, and we restricted analyses to Contract Health Service Delivery Areas and to non-Hispanic populations. We calculated CLD death rates (per 100,000) in 6 geographic regions. We then described trends using linear modeling. RESULTS: CLD mortality increased from 1999 to 2009 in AI/AN persons and Whites. Overall, the CLD death rate ratio (RR) of AI/AN individuals to Whites was 3.7 and varied by region. The RR was higher in women (4.7), those aged 25 to 44 years (7.4), persons residing in the Northern Plains (6.4), and persons dying of cirrhosis (4.0) versus hepatocellular carcinoma (2.5), particularly those aged 25 to 44 years (7.7). CONCLUSIONS: AI/AN persons had greater CLD mortality, particularly from premature cirrhosis, than Whites, with variable mortality by region. Comprehensive prevention and care strategies are urgently needed to stem the CLD epidemic among AI/AN individuals.

Evaluating an Electronic Measure of Colorectal Cancer Screening at Indian Health Service Facilities, 2008-2010.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer mortality in American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) people, and incidence rates vary considerably among AIAN populations throughout the United States. Screening has the potential to prevent CRC deaths by detection and treatment of early disease or removal of precancerous polyps. Surveillance of CRC screening is critical to efforts to improve delivery of this preventive service, but existing CRC screening surveillance methods for AIAN are limited. The Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) CRC screening clinical care measure provides data on CRC screening among AIAN populations. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the GPRA measure for CRC screening (sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value), determine reasons for CRC screening misclassification (procedures noted as screening when they were actually diagnostic exams), and to suggest opportunities for improving surveillance for CRC screening nationwide for AIAN populations. METHODS: Medical record reviews (paper and electronic) were compared to the GPRA-reported CRC screening status for 1,071 patients receiving care at tribal health facilities. A total of 8 tribal health facilities (2 small, 3 medium, and 3 large) participated in the study from the Pacific Coast, the Southwest, the Southern Plains, and Alaska IHS regions. Screening-eligible patients were identified using queries of the local electronic health record from January 2007 to December 2008, and medical chart reviews were completed at participating facilities from September 2008 to June 2010. RESULTS: Among 545 patients classified as screened by the GPRA measure, 305 (56%, CI: 52%-60%) had a false positive for screening as compared with medical record review. The overall sensitivity of the GPRA measure for CRC screening was 93% (CI=89%-95%) while specificity was 62% (CI: 59%-66%). The most common reasons for misclassification were for diagnostic or surveillance tests to be recorded as screening (67%), as well as medical record miscoding (18%) due to miscoding, charting errors, screenings performed outside the IHS, testing for a non-screening purpose, and categorization of patients as screened when a test had been ordered but not actually completed. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that the GPRA CRC screening clinical measure overestimates the true screening rate due to the inclusion of diagnostic and surveillance exams, especially colonoscopy, as well as misclassification errors. The results of this study suggest a need to more accurately use the ICD-9 diagnostic code V76.51, which was associated with frequent coding errors. In combination with other programmatic efforts that focus on screening average- risk, asymptomatic American Indian and Alaska Native persons, improving the coding used for CRC screening may help to more accurately detect decreases in AIAN CRC incidence and mortality.

Influenza surveillance using electronic health records in the American Indian and Alaska Native population.

OBJECTIVE: Increasing use of electronic health records (EHRs) provides new opportunities for public health surveillance. During the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus pandemic, we developed a new EHR-based influenza-like illness (ILI) surveillance system designed to be resource sparing, rapidly scalable, and flexible. 4 weeks after the first pandemic case, ILI data from Indian Health Service (IHS) facilities were being analyzed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The system defines ILI as a patient visit containing either an influenza-specific International Classification of Disease, V.9 (ICD-9) code or one or more of 24 ILI-related ICD-9 codes plus a documented temperature ≥100°F. EHR-based data are uploaded nightly. To validate results, ILI visits identified by the new system were compared to ILI visits found by medical record review, and the new system's results were compared with those of the traditional US ILI Surveillance Network. RESULTS: The system monitored ILI activity at an average of 60% of the 269 IHS electronic health databases. EHR-based surveillance detected ILI visits with a sensitivity of 96.4% and a specificity of 97.8% based on chart review (N=2375) of visits at two facilities in September 2009. At the peak of the pandemic (week 41, October 17, 2009), the median time from an ILI visit to data transmission was 6 days, with a mode of 1 day. DISCUSSION: EHR-based ILI surveillance was accurate, timely, occurred at the majority of IHS facilities nationwide, and provided useful information for decision makers. EHRs thus offer the opportunity to transform public health surveillance.

Severe acute respiratory infections caused by 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) among American Indians--southwestern United States, May 1-July 21, 2009.

BACKGROUND: During April-July 2009, U.S. hospitalization rates for 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus (H1N1pdm09) infection were estimated at 4·5/100 000 persons. We describe rates and risk factors for H1N1pdm09 infection among American Indians (AIs) in four isolated southwestern U.S. communities served by the Indian Health Service (IHS). METHODS: We reviewed clinical and demographic information from medical records of AIs hospitalized during May 1-July 21, 2009 with severe acute respiratory infection (SARI). Hospitalization rates were determined using denominator data provided by IHS. H1N1pdm09 infection was confirmed with polymerase chain reaction, rapid tests, or convalescent serology. Risk factors for more severe (SARI) versus milder [influenza-like illness (ILI)] illness were determined by comparing confirmed SARI patients with outpatients with ILI. RESULTS: Among 168 SARI-hospitalized patients, 52% had confirmed H1N1pdm09 infection and 93% had >1 high-risk condition for influenza complications. The H1N1pdm09 SARI hospitalization rate was 131/100 000 persons [95% confidence interval (CI), 102-160] and was highest among ages 0-4 years (353/100 000; 95% CI, 215-492). Among children, asthma (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 3·2; 95% CI, 1·2-8·4) and age<2 years (aOR 3·8; 95% CI, 1·4-10·0) were associated with H1N1pdm09 SARI-associated hospitalization, compared with outpatient ILI. Among adults, diabetes (aOR 3·1; 95% CI, 1·5-6·4) was associated with hospitalization after controlling for obesity. CONCLUSIONS: H1N1pdm09 hospitalization rates among this isolated AI population were higher than reported for other U.S. populations. Almost all case patients had high-risk health conditions. Prevention strategies for future pandemics should prioritize AIs, particularly in isolated rural areas.

Impact of hysterectomy and bilateral oophorectomy prevalence on rates of cervical, uterine, and ovarian cancer among American Indian and Alaska Native women, 1999-2004.

OBJECTIVE: To present more accurate incidence rates of cervical, uterine, and ovarian cancer by geographic region in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) women. METHODS: The authors used data from central cancer registries linked to Indian Health Service (IHS) patient registration database, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, IHS National Data Warehouse, and the National Hospital Discharge Survey. Cancer incidence rates were adjusted for hysterectomy and oophorectomy prevalence and presented by region for non-Hispanic White (NHW) and AI/AN women. RESULTS: AI/AN women had a higher prevalence of hysterectomy (23.1%) compared with NHW women (20.9%). Correcting cancer rates for population-at-risk significantly increased the cancer incidence rates among AI/AN women: 43% for cervical cancer, 67% for uterine cancer, and 37% for ovarian cancer. Risk-correction led to increased differences in cervical cancer incidence between AI/AN and NHW women in certain regions. CONCLUSIONS: Current reporting of cervical, uterine, and ovarian cancer underestimates the incidence in women at risk and can affect the measure of cancer disparities. Improved cancer surveillance using methodology to correct for population-at-risk may better inform disease control priorities for AI/AN populations.

Virus detection and duration of illness among patients with 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in Texas.

Knowledge from early outbreaks is limited regarding the virus detection and illness duration of the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) infections. During the period from April to May 2009 in Texas, we collected serial nasopharyngeal (NP) and stool specimens from 35 participants, testing by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) and culture. The participants were aged 2 months to 71 years; 25 (71%) were under 18. The median duration of measured fever was 3.0 days and of virus detection in NP specimens was 4.2 days; however, few specimens were collected between days 5-9. The duration of virus detection (4.2 days) was similar to the duration of fever (3.5 days) (RR, 1.14; 95% CI, .66-1.95; P = .8), but was shorter than the duration of cough (11.0 days) (RR, .41; 95% CI, .24-.68; P < .001). We detected viral RNA in two participants' stools. All cultures were negative. This investigation suggests that the duration of virus detection was likely similar to the seasonal influenza virus.